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EXPLOSIVES
POWDER
The history of jet propulsion, and, consequently, missile development, began from invention of powder, the only explosive substance during the past 500 years of the human history. None of the scientists can name the exact date of its invention. Nevertheless, there are several versions of powder invention and the date of this event.
The first one says that it was invented in India before 1500BC. Then the secret of its preparing appeared in China and Arabia in about 100 BC, and in 600AC in Byzantium. According to the second version it was invented in China in 300-200 BC and in 100BC the secret of its production appeared in India and Arabia and in 600AC in Byzantium. The third version proves that invention belongs to India and China, dated 100-300AC. In VI-VIII centuries the secret of its preparing was known in Byzantium and in XII-XIII centuries after the beginning of the Mongolian conquests in Arabia and Europe.
It’s necessary to note, that the combustible properties of the two of the three powder components were known to ancient people, using the results of the natural disasters in their life (forest fires, volcano eruptions and so on). However, only production and purification potash saltpeter, easily decomposing oxidizer, made it possible to carry out combustion process without air access. As a result, people managed to get a substance that had no analogs all over the world and became the basis of missiles and firearms.
The date, when people knew the secret of saltpeter manufacturing, is also unknown. However it’s possible to find out the approximate date with the help of the following data:
• In IV-III BC saltpeter was extracted from the places of mass concentration and remains of the dead animals;
• “Ground salt” medicinal remedy (saltpeter) was described for the first time by the Chinese doctor Shen-nung in his medical book, dated 200BC;
• The term “Chinese snow” was found in ancient Arabic manuscripts since 100BC;
• The term “Chinese salt” was mentioned in Byzantine documents since 600AC.
The first description of composition and instructions on powder producing belong to Simiao, alchemist and doctor, contemporary of Tan-Sun dynasty, who lived in 601-682. In his treatise called “Invaluable recipes» that was published in 1066, we can find the following substance composition: 8 portions of saltpeter, 4 portions of sulphur and 1 portion of coal. Admittedly, such a powder didn’t explode but burnt as a rocket propellant.
However, it unlikely corresponds to the real date of powder invention as primitive shells, where fuel mixtures were used as the basis, were known in China and India much earlier, in about 100AC.
In 994 the Chinese town Tzu Tung was besieged by the army, numbering up to 100 000 people. A commander of the town defense used not only catapults with incendiary shells but far reaching “fire arrows” against the besiegers. In 1132 general Chen Gui invented an arquebus prototype. His firearm, consisting of a bamboo tube stuffed with steam powder, could be used only once. While setting fire to the powder, a jet of steam and flame flew out of a tube that was rather efficient in a near battle or against a cavalry.
The first mass use of powder shells and cannons, throwing out stone cannon balls at the distance of up to 600 meters, was fixed by the Chinese historians in 1232 during defense of Kaifeng against Hubilay’s troops.
Since 1258 the description of firearm of Delhi ruler has been found in Old Indian works, and a century later the artillery was widely used in Indian armies.
The Western Europeans faced the combat use of fuel mixture in battles with the Moors on Spanish territory during “crusades” (1096-1270).
In early XIII AC France saw the works on development of production technology and the use of powder, but soon all the researches were forbidden by church as the latter called powder as a “devil’s poison”. Moreover, if any person knew the secret of powder it was enough to be burnt in fire.
In 1305 near Ronda the Arabs used the first firearms “modfa” against the Spanish army, which shoot with lead shots, being as big as a walnut. The arms consisted of welded iron tubes fastened to a log. The new firearm was so efficient that soon made the Europeans forget the church’s prohibition. In three years the Spanish Christians used their own cannons during Gibraltar siege.
In 1324 production of the most up-to-date for that time cast copper cannons began in Metz. Nowadays this event is considered an official beginning of the European artillery history. Such cannons were used for the first time by the German knights during the siege of Brescia and Chividelly in 1331.
Some time later the artillery workshops, integrating powder and cast works, were founded all over Europe. In France cannons were manufactured in 1337, in Italy-in 1345, in Holland –in 1356. In Poland the artillery was produced in 1370, in Czechia-in 1373, in Russia and Lithuania-in 1382, in Sweden-in 1395.
Since the middle of XV century projectile-type weapon was gradually superceded by firearms that lead to change of warfare tactics and provoked a number of local wars in the course of which new methods of warfare were tried.
In 1453, during the capture of Constantinople, Sultan Mohammed II used earlier unknown siege weapons i.e. 8-meter cannons that threw out stone shots weighing up to 500 kg. The weight of the tubes of the largest Turkish bombards, which analog is the Russian “Tsar-cannon”, reached 100 tons.
Later the artillery has completely superseded manual and mechanical projectile-type weapon that lead to revision of fortification principles. All the artillery arms were divided into siege, field, horse and regimental ones.
FIRE MIXTURES OF THE ANCIENT TIMES
The first firearm, called weapon of Brahma or Indra’s flame in Old Indian epos “Mahabharata”, was like “…a huge iron arrow that looked as a gigantic messenger of death”. One can find the following description of its application in a battle that took place almost 3200 BC ago: “A sparkling shell, shining as a fire, was shot. A thick mist suddenly covered the troops. The cardinal points were wrapped in darkness. A whirlwind, bringing evil, arose. Thunderclouds rushed at the sky with roar…”.
The first authentically fixed application of firearms was in Delia (424 BC). Fire mixture was thrown out from the tube-hollow log.
In 212 BC during Punic wars, Archimedes used a weapon by means of which the defenders of Syracuse burnt the ships of the Romans, who tried to seize the town from the sea. Taking into account a short firing range and not precise guidance of ancient projectile-type weapons, it’s possible to suppose that people used mixture, capable to burn in water. The secret of this arm was lost as next year the Roman army managed to seize the town and annihilated its citizens, including a great scientist.
Cornelio Tacit mentioned in his works the use of incendiary shells during conflicts of hostile Roman parties in 69 AC. But the information about the secret of their manufacturing is lacking.
The first mention about the use of firearms in China can be found in chronicles of Than (Tang-shu) dynasty. In 645 AC during seize of Lyaodun, people applied a certain weapon called “Fire” that killed about 10 000 citizens. However, the found documents don’t contain the information about its technical characteristics.
The Greek fire. In 673 Kalinnik, a Syrian mechanical engineer and architect, a refugee from Maalbek, offered to the Byzantine emperors a new weapon that was later called “the Greek fire”. The authentic recipe of the mixture wasn’t preserved, but according to scanty information from different sources it’s possible to suppose that mixture consisted of oil with sulphur and saltpeter.
In 5 years “the Greek fire” was used during Constantinople siege by the Arabs. Under the order of the emperor Constantine IV fiery mixture was poured out into the sea and set on fire during one of the Arabic fleet attacks. The sea was on fire for about twenty-four hours and almost all the people and ships were burnt.
In 941 soldiers of Igor Duke had personal experience of “the Greek fire” effect during their siege of Byzantium. The Greeks shot fiery mixture from the tubes onto the Russian ships. As a result “…many Russian and Greek people were burnt and sunk…”. The incendiary shells appeared in Russian in XII century with the help of the nomads who were Turkic by birth and used them during their raids on principalities, located on the outskirts. In 1219 the Russian soldiers attacked Oshel, using “the Greek fire”, which was thrown onto the fortress walls and over them by specially trained soldiers.
The Europeans got to know “the Greek fire” effect in early XIII century during the 5th crusade. Since 1217-1221 fiery mixtures spread all over the Europe by crusaders, who returned from crusades or by adventurers or treasure seekers.
However, the use of “the Greek fire” and other fiery mixtures continued till the mass use of powder. Some time later they lost their combat role and were gradually forgotten.
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