SOLID-FUEL

The humanity got to know jet propulsion a long time ago in about the first thousand years BC. Under the written sources, in 360 BC Archytas Tarentium, a founder of mechanics and upholder of Pythagoras’s mathematics was the first man who demonstrated the efficiency of jet propulsion. An earthen bird filled with water was hung on a special plank over fire. Water boiled and steam gushed out of a hole revolved the bird. The Greek mechanical engineers carried out similar experiments for the next 200 years, trying to use energy of water, fire, oil- and other mixtures, but the technologies of that time didn’t make it possible to manufacture materials durable enough to produce body for such mechanisms. Therefore the following researches in this direction were ceased.
The first guided missiles consisted of shells, which used energy of powder combustion. They were the famous “Chinese arrows” that began to be used in 200-300 AC. A rocket missile looked like a paper tube was filled with powder and tied to an arrow. The arrow was shot with the ignited missile from a usual military bow and its tail unit made of thick silk provided steady in flight. The flight range was about 300 meters that is twice longer than the one of usual arrow. In addition the precision of target kill depended only on training of an archer, who had to take into account a high flight speed of an arrow with a missile beside some usual factors. Sometimes the front parts of missiles were fit with incendiary mixture that exploded after the complete combustion of powder.
During the next 10 centuries ancient “rocket” weapons were perfected in local military conflicts by the Chinese and Indians as well as by Greek and Arab scientists. They investigated various incendiary mixtures, carriers (middle and heavy arrows, spears, darts) and the missile’s operation in flight. The importance of missilery grew to such an extent that in 1250 an unknown scientist with a pseudonym Mark Greck published the first textbook on missileman training that was called “Fiery book or a book about fire used for enemy burning”. In his large volume he described various fiery mixtures, their application in warfare and the principles of jet propulsion. However, in Europe the development of missilery was prohibited by church for a long time as well as by orgy of inquisition, which could call any scientist heretic and burn him.
Since the middle of XIII century missiles appear in Arabia, where they were called “air squid”. The Mongolian armies also started using incendiary arrows with powder. In 1258 the Mongols applied them during Belgrade siege, and in 1274 and 1281 they widely used missiles during attack on Japan. By the close of XIII century Japan, Korea, India and Java (Indonesia) also mastered the technology of powder manufacturing and combat application of “self-propelled arrows”. As a result the new weaponry spreads in Asia and Eastern Europe.
The first variant of stationary missile installation was described in Chinese chronicles in 1259. It was called “Spear of fierce fire” that consisted of a rather powerful missile tied to a pole and located on bamboo supports.
Despite the priority of Chinese soldiers in application of jet propulsion, the term “rochetta” was mentioned for the first time in description of powder incendiary arrows by Italian scientist Maratory in 1379. And the Italians knew about missiles from a traveler Marko Polo, who acquainted Europe with the Chinese way of life as well as with powder, incendiary mixtures and “fiery arrows”. The first missiles appeared in Europe only in 1400 and used for fireworks during Italian holidays.
The book of Fontan written in 1420 contains not merely description of combat missiles but rationalization proposals on the use of jetstream from a shot for movement by a “self-propelled” carriage.
The French soldiers of Joanna of Arc took the first place by the number of missiles applied during the combat operations in Europe, especially during Orleans defense in 1429. Later jet weaponry became more famous, however it was still complicated and unreliable in application in comparison with traditional warfare methods.
Nevertheless, the researches continued, and in 1561 in France an anonymous published work called “Some methods of fireworks combat application” came out, where an experience of missile use in battles was summarized and analyzed. It also contained a lot of recommendations, particularly concerning change of paper or bamboo missile body on leather one.
30 years later in 1591 Jean Beavie from Belgium described and made an approximate drawing of a multistage rocket, designed to overcome terrestrial gravity.
Since 1600 missiles were effective weapons against cavalry, which was the most powerful kind of military force since the ancient times. In this context warfare tactics were reconsidered in the favor of artillery and missilery.
Experience with the use of artillery proved the necessity of arm calibre increase and perfection of materials for their manufacturing to achieve greater efficiency in battles. The same tendency could be observed in missile development as the more reliable weaponry became the higher efficiency needed. In 17th century such works were carried out by majority of countries. For example, in 1668 Christoph Friedrich, German artillery colonel, experimented with missiles of up to 50 kg calibers and powder warhead weighing up to 7 kg.
Isaac Newton, great English scientist, made a sound contribution to the development of missilery. In 1687 he published his famous book called “Mathematical principle of natural philosophy”, where he formulated “The universal movement law”. The third law says that “There is an equal and opposite reaction for every action” that is a fundamental principle of jet engine operation. It forms the basis of jet thrust calculation up to now. It was Newton who determined speed and height necessary to carry missile into geostationary orbit.
The English soldiers had to experience the efficiency of missilery in Asia and North America. In 1792 the Indian soldiers fired missiles on the well-trained British soldiers in a battle near Seringapatam. Despite the fact that the Indian “secret weaponry” was manufactured under rather primitive technologies, quantity and singularity of its operation and efficiency demoralized the English army. The story repeated during the siege of Seringapatam, Indian city, in 1799. Tippoo-Sagib, the ruler of the city, had a corps of “missile rifles” numbering 1200 people, which was founded by his father Hyder-Alli. The Missiles killed the first files of the British army for several minutes, consisted of a rather well-proportioned bamboo tubes with powder weighing 3-6 kg and were tied to sticks 2,5 m in length to stabilize the missiles’ flight. At the same time the Indians used iron shell-case with the length of 30 sm as missile body. It was fixed on a bamboo pole that was 2,5-3 m long.
During Colonization of Canada by the English army the North-American Indians used prototypes of portable antiaircraft missile installations – simple missiles, launched from a shoulder. The chronicles prove that quick redskin riflemen crippled the Britain army to greater extent than it was done by the cumbersome European artillery.
However Great Britain was always known as a country that doesn’t repeat its mistakes. To prevent the Napoleon’s invasion, the English government started realized a program targeted at supporting scientists and inventors working in the field of weaponry development. At the same time the first missiles of high efficiency appeared thanks to sir William Kongrev, the British army colonel and military engineer. After a numerous experiments with missiles taken during the Indian campaign, the English inventor elaborated a theory of designing and manufacturing of solid-fuel missiles that included a technology of sustention of a stable fuel combustion and methods of tailplane use to control missile’s flight. A secret “devil’s machine” of Kongrev consisted of a high-explosive incendiary shell on a jet traction that was launched at the distance of up to 2,7 km. In 1806 over 2000 such missiles were applied to fire Bologna. Only then the Indian army and the North-American Indians experienced the efficiency of the advanced English missiles.
It’s noteworthy that in 1807 a missile was used for non-combat purposes. Henry Tengrous suggested fixing a halyard for missile to deliver a life-rope to a ship in distress. This method is used up to now. 
Russia also didn’t keep aside from the world tendencies. In 1817 the first separate European army missile brigade was formed by Alexander Zasyadko, a Russian artillery officer and talented inventor. Great Britain and Austria formed such subdivisions only in a year. The missiles were an essential and equal part of the army in every Power until appearance of rifle in 1890.
It’s necessary to draw attention to Constantine Constantinov, another Russian officer, “father of Russian combat powder missiles”. He acquainted with missilery in the west, paying special attention to manufacturing this weaponry at Kongrev plant that located in London neighborhood. Beside perfection of missiles and equipment for their launch, the Russian scientist considerably improved conditions of missile production as well as developed the first in the world test stand with ballistic pendulum that determined missile thrust. As a result powder missile of Konstantinov had longer range, became more precise and were much safer during transportation and launch.
The first launch of solid-fuel ballistic missile 3,7 m in length and powder charge weighing 4,5 kg took place in the USA in 1863. The troops of confederates assembled it and fired from Richmond to Washington, but where it flew and landed left unknown.
The missiles lost their importance after reequipping army with rifle. However the experiment on their use for peace purposes continued for about 40 years. So, in early 20th century the European scientists ran some unsuccessful experiments on driving away rain clouds by means of meteorological missiles.
The experiment of Alfred Maul, a German engineer, who launched a solid-fuel missile with photography equipment, can be considered the most successful. It was appraised by cartographers from different countries who unsuccessfully tried to draw detailed maps of regions difficult of access where there were not merely aerodromes but roads.
Shortly before World War I Rene Lorin, French artillery officer, formulated a conception of wing missile design and purpose. However the missiles were used for smoke screening and night illumination of battlefield during military operations. The only exception was an aircraft solid-fuel missile, developed by Le Pier, a lieutenant of the French Navy. They were carried by biplanes to destroy observation aerostat.
In 1914 Robert Goddard, an American engineer and founder of modern jet engine building, took out two patents, which predetermined the history of missile development. He has developed a liquid-propellant engine for missiles as well as for two-, three-stage solid-fuel ones. In 1915 Goddard launched its first solid-fuel missile. This talented scientist is an author of 200 patents in missile building field. His works were taken as a basis of program aimed at German missile development, and many principles downed by him, are used nowadays.
Despite the overwhelming superiority of rifle artillery, development of missiles was under way. In addition Russia was again “in advance of all”. On May 3, 1919 during the height of the civil war, Nicholas Tikhomirov, a scientist and chemist, stated an idea on “a self-propelled jet mine” development to the RSFSR Government. By the early 1921 in Moscow the state machine shop for development of smokeless powder missiles had been put into operation. Beside Tikhomirov there also worked a talented scientist Vladimir Artemyev. In 1925 the shop was relocated to Leningrad, where the Chief gunnery range made it possible to carry out tests. On March 3, 1928 the first smokeless powder missile taken as a basis for further missile development, was successfully launched.
On September 27, 1933 under a decree of marshal Michael Tukhachevsky the first “Reaction research institute” (RNII, hereafter NII-3) was founded. It developed and designed solid-fuel rocket missiles and launchers for them. In 1935 the first test launches of missiles from I-15 fighters were carried out and showed positive results. Thanks to the specialists of the institute the Soviet air force had been the only one equipped with missiles by the close of 1939. Thus it was 3 years ahead of the USA and Great Britain and 4 years ahead of Germany. The progress achieved with aircraft missiles prompted NII-3 to develop similar weaponry for land forces.
By the end of World War II (1939-1945) the RS-82 and RS-132 pyroxylin powder missiles had become standard weapons of Soviet front-line aviation and had been used for the BM-13 rocket mortar (“Katyusha”). The same principle was applied in Germany in the course of development of “Panzerwerfer” 42 auf Sf “Maultier” self-propelled rocket system, a rather efficient analogue of the Russian “Katyusha”. By the end of the war the USA had also developed an experimental solid-fuel missile. It was a tank-, air- and shipborne missile, developed by a group of scientists from the California Institute of Technology, headed by Dr. Theodore Korman. More than 40 000 such missiles were used during landing of the Americans in France in 1944, that, however, didn’t help allies, bursting through Hitler’s defenses.
After the end of World War II and world division into two political systems, scientific and technological progress had been considerably accelerated and high-end technologies had attracted special attention. The Powers-Winners, which gained access to the unique military developments of Hitler Germany, used scientific, designing and production resources to win a notorious “arms race”. All the types of weaponry, including solid-fuel missiles were rapidly updated and perfected. Nowadays they have almost superceded barrel artillery and are adopted for regular use by armed service. Among the World’s best is “Stinger” portable anti-aircraft missile system (1981, the USA), 9K58 “Smerch” reaction salvo fire system (1987, Russia),  “Iskander-E” missile system (1999, Russia), RBS-23 BAMSE anti-aircraft missile system (2002, Switzerland) and “Khrizantema” anti-tank missile system (2002, Russia).
The tactical guided (wing) missile that can be launched from aircraft-, shipborne- and coastal missile systems are considered one of the most advanced types of up-to-date weaponry. They combine high precision and destructive power. The wing missiles are equipped with various engine types, but before the beginning of space era and rapid development of solid fuel jet engines they had been mostly fitted with solid-fuel ones.
The first solid-fuel missiles were of “air-to-air” type. The development of RS-1U the first soviet wing missile began in 1951 to equip MiG-15, MiG-17PFU and Yak-25P fighters. It was developed in the Experimental and Design Bureau-2 by a well-known designer Dmitry Tomashevich and put into serial production at the plant #455 (Tactical Missiles Corporation JSC nowadays) in 1956. Later the missile was upgraded and had RS-2-US index. Soon the R-55 was derived from this type of missile (the Design Bureau of the plant #455). It was equipped with IR homer and designed to fit MiG-21 bis, Su-9 and Su-15 fighters.
During intensive military operations in Vietnam in 1965 Russia received a request for development and supply of “air-to-ground” missiles sent by the government of this country. First Mikoyan Experimental and Design Bureau and the State Research Institute of Aircraft Systems were charged with the project and then the Experimental and Design Bureau of the plant #455 was commissioned to fulfill it. The sample of Kh-66 missile had been developed by 1967 and was put into service in 1968.
At the close of 1978 the same enterprise that had been renamed into Kaliningrad Production Association “Strela” carried out practical works on development the world’s modular wing missile. Finally it made possible to decrease the number of “air-to-surface” missile types by changing warhead and seeker as well as increase reliability and simplify its operation. The Kh-25M was put into service in 1981 and it is still one of the world best supersonic tactical guided missiles.
Despite the world tendency to use liquid-propellant missiles, the upgrading of solid-fuel ones is under way. The SLSS anti-ship missile system (Ship Launched Sea Skua, 1981, Great Britain) and R-77 aircraft middle range “air-to-air” missile (1992, Russia) belong to the most famous present-day developments.